Author’s note: This post is a modified version of the original presentation.
In an article published in the Atlantic, McKay Coppins described Mormonism as “the Most American Religion,”1 attributing some of the American nature to the church’s origins. After all, the new book of scripture was set in the Americas, and Joseph Smith made direct connections between the restoration of the gospel and the founding of the United States and its Constitution.
Despite its origins, Mormonism is a worldwide religion. As of this year, 60% of the members on record for the LDS church are located outside of the United States.2 Even in 1971, 40% of the members on record were located outside of the US.3 Russell M. Nelson, having been called as the General Superintendent of the Deseret Sunday School Union, recognized the worldwide nature of the Church. According to the General Sunday School minutes, he stated that “one of the greatest responsibilities we have in the church is deAmericanization of our programs and materials.”4
Translation
A history of translation and distribution in the church written by John E. Carr details some of the challenges that translators had in communicating American concepts.5 For example, the use of the word “kickoff” in a “Fundamentals of the Gospel” Sunday School manual couldn’t be adequately translated in Japan, due to a lack of cultural understanding of American football. Use of intialisms and English word puzzles also didn’t translate well across languages.
However, translation difficulties also arose in handling concepts. A memo from the Tokyo translation department, printed in Carr’s history, describes major differences between Japanese and American concepts of children, occupations, politics, and ethics. For politics in particular, the translators explained, “Japanese [Mormons] never mention that they are proud to be Japanese and live in Japan, contrary to American Mormons.”
DeAmericanization is a particular challenge for the Doctrine and Covenants, simply due to the subject matter. There are at least five sections where the US government is referenced. Section 58 talks about obedience to the “laws of the land;” section 87 is the prophecy on the Civil War; section 98 discusses “constitutional” laws; section 101 proclaims the US Constitution to be inspired by God; and section 134 is a declaration on government. Additionally, the historical context for Official Declaration 1 involves disagreements with the United States government. This paper focuses on how D&C Sunday School manuals since 1972 have treated the political elements of these sections.
Timeline
The way that the D&C has been covered in Sunday School curriculum has shifted significantly since 1972. It was originally part of an eight-year rotation, and as such, had two years to cover the scriptures and Church history up to that point. The dates for the start of the curriculum year wouldn’t be standardized until 1982.6 The start date in the US was September 1, so the manuals were actually used across two calendar years.7 All of these dates refer to the copyright years for the manuals, since referring to manuals by the year they were used gets difficult when they’re reused. (For more details on the timeline of Sunday School manuals, see this blog post.) My Kingdom Shall Roll Forth was a supplementary manual distributed to students, containing iconic talks from church presidents and other historical information.
However, in 1983, the rotation shifted to four years—one year per standard work—primarily at the urging of President Benson, who was concerned that the church wasn’t spending enough time studying the Book of Mormon.8 This meant that two manuals needed to be condensed into one, while still keeping the supplementary material.
Then, in 1988, the manuals were reduced yet again, limiting the lesson plans to one page each, with an emphasis on discussion questions. In 1991, they kept the same one-page lesson plan concept, while introducing a student guide that had less than one page of historical context for each lesson. All of the manuals on up to this point were created by essentially the same committee.
In 1999, the D&C manuals got a significant overhaul, going back to a format akin to the late 70s and early 80s manuals, with much more content provided for teachers. The manual got a relatively minor update in 2003. There was also a digital-only update in 2017, with the release of the new Gospel Topics essays. Lesson plans were updated to include links to resources for additional historical context.
Come Follow Me started in 2020, removing Church history from the curriculum in its entirety. With the release of the Home and Church version of the Book of Mormon manual, it’s likely that a “Home and Church” version of the D&C manual will be released later this year.
1978-1980
- Relevant lessons:
- 1978-1979
- Lesson 25 : D&C 57-59
- Lesson 34: D&C 87, 90
- Lesson 39: D&C 98, 99, 101
- 1979-1980
- Lesson 14: D&C 134
- Lesson 24: Official Declaration—1 (“An Era of Persecution”)
- 1978-1979
The 1970s manuals demonstrate the original objective of the correlated Sunday School curriculum; that is, Sunday School was designed to focus on historical aspects of the scriptures, while Relief Society and Elders’ Quorum were intended to focus on the doctrinal aspects.9 These manuals contain a lot of political discussion, especially in the historical context for particular sections. Additionally, a quote from Marion G. Romney denouncing socialism shows up in both of the manuals—one in a chapter on the United Order, the other in a chapter on modern church welfare. This is the only manual to discuss slavery as the cause of the Civil War, stating: “By 1861, when the United States Civil War did begin in South Carolina, slavery had become a prime issue of conflict.” In fact, the only other lesson to discuss the historical context of section 87 in any detail is the Individual and Family manual for 2020, and it simply mentions that, “Nearly 30 years later […] South Carolina did rebel and civil war followed.”
1984
- Relevant lessons:
- Lesson 25: “Instructions to the Exiles”: D&C 97-101
- Lesson 36: “John Taylor: Courage in an Era of Persecution: Official Declaration—1; My Kingdom chapters 7-8
The 1984 manual was an extremely condensed version of the 1970s manuals, with significant reduction in the amount of historical context. Interestingly, a section on “seek[ing] for redress” carries over from the 1970s manuals almost word for word. However, a suggested answer regarding the phrase “when the wicked rule the people mourn” reads, “Wicked rulers do not uphold constitutional principles of freedom,” using “constitutional” in a broad way that doesn’t acknowledge its Americentricity. There is no discussion of section 134, the section with the most direct discussion of governmental policies.
1988
- Relevant lessons:
- Lesson 25: D&C 97-101, 134
- Lesson 37: Official Declaration—1; My Kingdom chapters 7-9
The 1988 manuals limited lessons to a single page. Not only that, but the verse summaries found in the scriptures were required to be added to every lesson, at times taking up an entire column of the two allotted for a lesson. Of the five sections and the Official Declaration, three of the sections get one politically-focused question each, while the lesson on the Official Declaration positions “political trends” as in opposition to the Church. One of the questions asks “What has the Lord said about the Constitution of the United States,” and laws are still described as “constitutional.”
1991
- Relevant lessons
- Lesson 17: D&C 57-58
- Lesson 57: D&C 97-100, 134
- Lesson 43: Official Declaration—1 and 2
With the addition of the student guide in 1991, there was more room for historical context, but the only section with relevant context added was Official Declaration 1. Still, the questions addressing “laws of the land” no longer include constitutionality.
1999
- Relevant lessons
- Lesson 3: “I Had Seen a Vision”
- Lesson 27: “They Must Needs Be Chastened and Tried, Even as Abraham”
- Lesson 44: Being Good Citizens”
The biggest contradiction to this pattern of deAmericanization is the 1999 manual. Lessons are written in roughly chronological order, and a lesson on the First Vision includes a discussion on how the United States and its Constitution were founded to provide a place for the gospel to be restored. The “seek for redress” paragraph shows up mostly unchanged in a lesson on Zion’s Camp.
The bulk of the political content is found in the lesson titled “Being Good Citizens.” Significant time is spent on Benson’s service as Secretary of Agriculture. A teacher’s note at the beginning explains:
Governments and laws vary among different countries and cultures. Be sensitive to local conditions as you decide what to discuss in this lesson. In some areas it may be best to spend the majority of class time discussing the third section of the lesson. Avoid discussions that encourage controversy or criticism. Remember that Church leaders have always instructed us to work within the law to bring about needed changes.
The three sections include: “participating in government,” “obeying the laws of the land,” and “strengthening the community.” This last one includes sections on serving others, serving in elected or appointed public service positions, and supporting worthy causes or activities. A provided example of supporting worthy causes is a Young Woman’s leader becoming chairperson of “Canadians for Decency” and working to change pornography laws. The section on obeying laws of the land asks, “How should we treat law-enforcement officers and other civil officers? How can we show our appreciation for their efforts?” The lesson also provides a quote from the Church handbook regarding institutional political neutrality.
So what makes this manual so different from the manuals that came before it? What created this break in the deAmericanization trend? A quote from M. Russell Ballard used in this lesson provides a framework for understanding this shift:
In the Church, we often state the couplet, ‘Be in the world but not of the world.’ . . . Perhaps we should state the couplet . . . as two separate admonitions. First, ‘Be in the world.’ Be involved; be informed. Try to be understanding and tolerant and to appreciate diversity. Make meaningful contributions to society through service and involvement. Second, ‘Be not of the world.’ Do not follow wrong paths or bend to accommodate or accept what is not right. . . .
One of Coppins’ arguments for Mormonism’s status as “most American” includes the assimilation efforts of the Church, such as the encouragement of leaders for members to join the US military and intelligence services.10 Armand Mauss discusses the cycle of retrenchment and assimilation, with retrenchment referring to a focus on internal church doctrines that are distinctive from secular society, and assimilation referring to the downplaying of distinctive doctrines in order to become palatable to a broader secular culture.11
In the late 1990s, Gordon B. Hinckley spearheaded a wide-ranging assimilation effort with interviews on both 60 Minutes and Larry King Live. His public relations efforts, including the later “I’m a Mormon” campaign, sought to normalize Mormons within American society. However, in the same era, the heterosexual nuclear family was a central focus not only for the Church, but also for other American Christian organizations, as Taylor Petrey describes in Tabernacles of Clay.
I would argue that Hinckley’s assimilation efforts were part of a larger goal in aligning the Church with the religious right. That is, the more that the LDS Church could align with American culture, the more likely the LDS Church would be accepted into a coalition of the religious right, especially in regards to their positions on the family. The pull to the religious right satisfies Ballard’s definitions, being in the world (by associating with more accepted religious groups) and being not of the world (by doubling down on religious aspects that are different from secular culture).
These manuals were used for twenty years; such an extended usage means that lifetime members born between 1979 and 2001 are likely to have taught or been taught from these manuals for at least half of their curricular life.
2020
- Relevant lessons:
- “Stand Ye In Holy Places”: D&C 85-87
- “Prepare Ye For the Coming of the Bridegroom” (D&C 133-134)
Finally, the 2020 manuals focus on government only in the context of section 134. The 2020 IF manual mentions how section 134 was created to abate non-member concerns regarding Mormons and civil government. The teacher’s manual adds, “Encourage class members to avoid talking about specific political issues or views.”
The teacher’s manual centers the discussion on religious freedom, referring to a 2015 quote from Robert D. Hales. His “cornerstones” of religious freedom come from an American Christian perspective, focusing on the ability to believe and worship. The Pew Research Center’s study on government restrictions on religion and social hostilities involving religion includes data on “policies that single out certain religious groups or ban certain practices; the granting of benefits to some religious groups but not others; and bureaucratic rules that require religious groups to register to receive benefits.”12
While government restrictions on religion have increased worldwide since 2007, it isn’t obvious that those restrictions are affecting Church members in particular. Still, the emphasis on religious freedom reflects the increased emphasis on the topic in both general conference and speeches given at BYU.13 Americans that support religious freedom for individuals or organizations to discriminate on the basis of religion are more likely to be towards the right on the political spectrum.14
Conclusion
As a whole, the manuals have become less explicitly American over time in regards to political and legal issues. This is mainly due to a shift in focus on doctrine, rather than on historical context. The current lack of manuals for Relief Society and Elders Quorum means that Sunday School manuals are one of the only ways that doctrine can be disseminated from the institutional church. Church history is no longer included in the curriculum for Doctrine and Covenants; significant time is no longer spent on the post scriptural history of the Church, especially as it requires discussion of American historical context.
The whole effort is to make a curriculum that can be used anywhere in the world, under any cultural or political circumstance, so that the only culture we’re bound by is the culture of the gospel.
-Rex D. Pinegar, executive director of the Curriculum Department, 199015
The deAmericanization of church materials contributes to one of the main goals of Sunday School manuals, that is, to create a “culture of the gospel.” The remaining implicit political content in the manuals reinforces American assimilation. While this could be abated with a more diverse writing committee, manuals since the 1980s have been written relying on earlier Sunday School, Seminary, and Institute manuals, leading to static interpretations of the scriptures. Still, the manuals have largely succeeded at Nelson’s goal of deAmericanizing Church materials.
- Coppins, McKay. “The Most American Religion.” The Atlantic, 16 Dec. 2020. The Atlantic, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/01/the-most-american-religion/617263/. ↩︎
- “Statistics and Church Facts | Total Church Membership.” Newsroom, http://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics. Accessed 11 June 2024. ↩︎
- Carr, John E. “For in That Day– “: A History of Translation and Distribution, 1965-1980, 1985. https://catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org/record/b4a892ee-8d52-4bc2-be74-6e3524332af3/0?view=summary&lang=eng. ↩︎
- Sunday School General Presidency Meeting Agendas, Minutes, and Assignments. 13 July 1971, https://catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org/record/ed190e2f-bcfb-4835-b35c-f61b631a757d/0?view=summary. Church History Library. ↩︎
- Carr, “For in That Day– “. ↩︎
- “January 1982 Marks Beginning of Curriculum Year,” Ensign, January 1981, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1981/01/news-of-the-church/january-1982-marks-beginning-of-curriculum-year?lang=eng. ↩︎
- Carr, “For in That Day–.” ↩︎
- Richard O. Cowan, Richard Cowan interview, interview by Allison D. Clark, April 8, 1996, L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, https://archives.lib.byu.edu/repositories/ltpsc/resources/upb_mss2164.
Truman G. Madsen, Truman Madsen interview, interview by Allison D. Clark, March 12, 1996, L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, https://archives.lib.byu.edu/repositories/ltpsc/resources/upb_mss2164. ↩︎ - Carlos E. Asay, “‘For the Perfecting of the Saints’:,” Ensign, January 1986, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1986/01/for-the-perfecting-of-the-saints-a-look-at-church-curriculum?lang=eng. ↩︎
- Coppins, “The Most American Religion.” ↩︎
- Armand L. Mauss, “Rethinking Retrenchment: Course Corrections in the Ongoing Campaign for Respectability,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 44, no. 4 (December 1, 2011): 1–42, https://doi.org/10.5406/dialjmormthou.44.4.0001. ↩︎
- Samirah Majumdar and Sarah Crawford, “Globally, Government Restrictions on Religion Reached Peak Levels in 2021, While Social Hostilities Went Down,” Pew Research Center (blog), March 5, 2024, https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2024/03/05/globally-government-restrictions-on-religion-reached-peak-levels-in-2021-while-social-hostilities-went-down/. ↩︎
- See speeches.byu.edu or lds-general-conference.org. ↩︎
- “2023 Religious Freedom Index: American Perspectives on the First Amendment,” Religious Freedom Index (Becket Fund for Religious Liberty, January 2024), https://becketnewsite.s3.amazonaws.com/20240116135226/Religious-Freedom-Index-2023-Report.pdf. ↩︎
- Julie A Dockstader, “Curriculum: Helping Members Apply Gospel to Daily Lives,” Church News, December 29, 1990. ↩︎
